Where we left off

void hanoi(int n, int src, 
           int dest, int spare) {
    if (n == 1) {
        cout << "Move disk from " << src 
             << " to " << dest << endl;
    } else {
        hanoi(n-1, src, spare, dest);
        hanoi(1, src, dest, spare);
        hanoi(n-1, spare, dest, src);
    }
}

Today's topics

• Back to classes! Last day of new stuff
• Copying objects
• Copy constructors
• Overloading the assignment operator
• Touch on inheritance, if we have time

Textbook Section 11.4

Copying objects

• In assignment 4, you can treat a Team just like a built-in type
• This means you can do things like:

  Team t1;
  source >> t1;
  Team t2 = t1;
  

• Or have a function that returns a copy of an Team:

  Team copy_of_first() {
      return head->team;
  }
  

• But what does it mean to copy an object?

Default copying

• Copying occurs whenever you:
  1. Assign an object to another instance
  2. Pass an object to a function by value
  3. Return an object from a function by value
  4. Initialize an object with another instance
• With the exception of case i, these all involve creating a new object (we'll come back to case i later)
• C++ provides a default copy constructor to handle this

Case iv: Initializing an object

• With primitives, it makes sense to do the following:

  int x = 5; // allocate an int with value 5
  int y = x; // allocate another int with value 5
  

• This works for objects too:

  Team t1; // allocate an Team with default values
  Team t2 = t1; // allocate another Team with the same values
  

• The compiler will use the copy constructor to initialize t2, equivalent to:

  Team t2(t1); // instantiate an Team with the same values as t1
  

• Just like the default constructor, a default copy constructor is provided

Default copy constructor

• The default copy constructor does a shallow copy, where the value of each member variable is copied

• If the member is a statically allocated array, the array is copied element by element (the behaviour described way back in lecture 10)

• Let's draw a diagram of the following copy operations:

  struct Foo {
      int var1;
      double var2;
      char var3[4];
  };
  

  Foo f1 = {1, 2, "hi"};
  Foo f2 = f1;
  

Copying pointer members

What if the member variable is a pointer, such as the head of a linked list?

class StringStack {
public:
...
private:
    struct Node {
        std::string data;
        Node *next;
    };
    Node *head;
};

Passing objects by value

• Recall: passing an object by value creates a local copy in the function
• When the function finishes, the local copy is destroyed

  void addstuff(StringStack s, std::string stuff) {
      s.push(stuff);
  }   
  

• Let's trace what happens when we call addstuff with a StringStack

Overriding the default copy constructor

• To enable a deep copy, we need to override the default copy constructor
  • Overload: same function name, different signature
  • Override: same function name, same signature, replaces previous
• The copy constructor has one parameter: a reference to another instance

  class StringStack {
  public:
      StringStack(); // parameterless constructor
      ~StringStack(); // destructor
      StringStack(const StringStack &other); // copy constructor
  };
  

Implementing the copy constructor

• The copy constructor is just like any other function, BUT:
  • it cannot call any methods that take or return an object by value
  • This includes the assignment operator for the class
• Since the copy constructor is called automatically in these scenarios, we would end up with infinite recursion
• The copy constructor must be written from scratch

A copy constructor for StringStack

StringStack::StringStack(const StringStack &other) {
    head = NULL;

    // copy the contents of other
    Node *curr = other.head;
    while (curr) {
        push(curr->data);
        curr = curr->next;
    }
}

Overriding the assignment operator

• Remember the 4 cases where copying occurs?
• Case i is assignment:

  StringStack s1;
  StringStack s2;
  s1 = s2; // not the same as all in one line!
  

• The copy constructor is not called because s2 already exists
• Anyone using this class would expect the assignment operator to behave like the copy constructor (i.e. deep copy)
• Good thing we know how to override operators

Overriding the assignment operator

• Almost the same as the copy constructor, but:
  • any existing data in the object must be destroyed first
  • the return type must be a reference to the object
• The reference requirement is to allow for assignment chaining:

  int x, y, z;
  x = y = z = 5; // this is legal!
  

• Finally, we need to consider the possible (legal, but weird) case:

  StringStack s1;
  ... // do stuff with s1
  s1 = s1; // self-assignment
  

Implementing the assignment operator

StringStack& StringStack::operator = (const StringStack &other) {
    if (this == &other) // check for self-assignment
        return *this;

    while (!empty()) // destroy existing data
        pop();

    Node *curr = other.head; // copy the contents of other
    while (curr) {
        push(curr->data);
        curr = curr->next;
    }

    return *this;
}

Side tangent: avoiding code duplication

• The copy constructor and assignment operator are very similar
• It can be tempting to just call one from the other, i.e.:

  StringStack::StringStack(const StringStack &other) {
      *this = other;
  }
  

• This is a bad idea because = only works on existing objects
• Instead, we can extract the common code into a private helper function and call it from both, e.g. void copy_elements(const StringStack &other);

The Rule of Three or "The Big Three"

Classes with dynamically allocated data should always have:

1. A destructor to free the memory
2. A copy constructor to make a deep copy
3. An assignment operator to make a deep copy

Copying check-in 1/2

Which of the following is not a case where the copy constructor is called?

Copying check-in 2/2

When dealing with classes with dynamically allocated members, the default copy constructor might:

A (very brief) intro to Inheritance

• Classes are a great way to provide abstraction and encapsulation
• But there's a lot of repetition in the code we write
• Inheritance allows us to reuse code from other (similar) classes

Inheritance

AKA creating a new class from an existing one

• Inheritance is an "is-a" relationship
  • A Duck is an Animal
  • A Cat is an Animal
  • A Lion is a Cat
• The new class is called a subclass, derived class, or child class
• The existing class is called a superclass, base class, or parent class
• The derived class inherits all the members of the base class

What gets inherited?

• The derived class gets all the members of the base class except the constructor, destructor, copy constructor, and assignment operator
  • A Cat has private members age_years, name, and gender
  • A Lion can stalk() and pounce(), but also roar()
• All Animals can speak(), but what does that mean?
• A derived class can override a member of the base class
  • We can redefine Cat::speak() to make it more specific

private members are still private

• Derived classes inherit all members of the base class; a cat has a name
• However, this throws a compiler error!

  std::string Cat::speak() {
      return name + " says meow";
  }
  

• The private members of the base class are not accessible
• This is to prevent breaking encapsulation - if this were allowed, someone else could inherit your class and start messing with the private members

Inheritance: main takeaway

• There is a whole lot more nuance to inheritance and no more time in this class
• There won't be more on the final than maybe a multiple choice question about "what is inheritance" or "why is inheritance useful"
• Inheritance allows us to extend the functionality of a class without having to rewrite all the code
• Next semester you'll be working in Java, which is completely object-oriented and uses inheritance extensively (but some nuance is different from C++)

Coming up next

• Assignment 4 is due on Monday!
• Lab tomorrow: copying
• Last lecture: exam discussion, practice coding on paper, spotting errors, drawing memory diagrams, and any other topics of interest

And that's all for new content!